Species-specific surgical procedures represent a critical area of veterinary surgery that requires understanding of anatomical differences, species-appropriate techniques, and unique complications associated with each animal type.
Overview and Clinical Importance
Species-specific surgical procedures represent a critical area of veterinary surgery that requires understanding of anatomical differences, species-appropriate techniques, and unique complications associated with each animal type. This guide covers essential procedures across small animals, equines, and food animals that are commonly tested on the BCSE.
The BCSE allocates 22-25 questions to the Surgery domain, with species-specific procedures being a significant component. Understanding the differences in surgical approaches between species, indications for procedures, and common complications is essential for exam success.
High-YieldEquine colic surgery, bovine cesarean section, and left displaced abomasum (LDA) correction are the most commonly tested large animal surgical topics on the BCSE.
| Procedure |
Key Technical Points |
Common Complications |
| Ovariohysterectomy (OVH) |
Midline or flank approach. Ligate ovarian pedicle, uterine body, and broad ligament vessels. Double ligation recommended for pedicles. |
Hemorrhage from ovarian pedicle, uterine stump granuloma, ovarian remnant syndrome, incisional complications |
| Castration (canine) |
Pre-scrotal or scrotal approach. Open or closed technique. Ligate spermatic cord vessels and ductus deferens. |
Scrotal hematoma, self-trauma, hemorrhage, wound infection, scrotal swelling |
| Castration (feline) |
Scrotal approach. Open technique common. Tunic may be incised or left intact. Vessels may be tied or knotted. |
Hemorrhage, wound infection, self-trauma. Cryptorchidism requires abdominal exploration. |
| Mass Removal |
Margin assessment critical. 1-3 cm margins for suspected malignancy. Submit for histopathology. Consider anatomic location. |
Incomplete excision, seroma formation, dehiscence, infection |
| Dental Extraction |
Proper elevation technique. Section multi-rooted teeth. Avoid jaw fracture. Alveolar bone debridement. |
Root tip retention, jaw fracture, oronasal fistula (maxillary canines), hemorrhage |
| Procedure |
Indications |
Key Technical Points |
| Gastrotomy |
Foreign body removal, gastric biopsy, exploratory for gastric lesions |
Incision between greater and lesser curvature. Two-layer closure. Stay sutures for exposure. |
| Enterotomy |
Foreign body removal (linear foreign bodies require multiple enterotomies), intestinal biopsy |
Antimesenteric incision. Single-layer appositional closure. Assess viability before closure. |
| Intestinal Resection and Anastomosis (R&A) |
Devitalized bowel, neoplasia, intussusception (if not reducible), severe trauma |
End-to-end or side-to-side. Simple interrupted appositional pattern. Check patency post-closure. |
| Gastropexy |
Prevention of gastric dilatation-volvulus (GDV) recurrence. Prophylactic in high-risk breeds. |
Incisional, belt-loop, or circumcostal technique. Permanent adhesion between stomach and body wall. |
Small Animal Surgical Procedures
Small animal surgical procedures form the foundation of general veterinary practice. Entry-level veterinarians are expected to perform ovariohysterectomy, castration, dental extractions, mass removals, and basic wound management with minimal supervision.
Core Small Animal Procedures
MEMORY AID - OVH Ligature Order: "POB" - Pedicle (ovarian), Ovarian ligament, Body (uterine). Always start with the ovarian pedicle and work caudally.
GI Surgery Procedures
Gastrointestinal surgery in small animals requires understanding of tissue handling principles, anastomosis techniques, and postoperative management to prevent complications such as dehiscence and peritonitis.
High-YieldThe "4 Cs" of intestinal viability assessment: Color (pink, not gray or black), Contractility (peristalsis present), Circulation (pulsatile arterial bleeding when cut), and Consistency (not friable).
MEMORY AID - Anastomosis Suture Pattern: "SAP" - Simple Appositional Pattern. Use simple interrupted sutures that appose (not invert or evert) the intestinal edges for optimal healing.
| Approach |
Advantages |
Disadvantages |
| Ventral Midline Celiotomy |
Most thorough abdominal exploration. Access to entire GI tract. 75% of intestine can be exteriorized. Gold standard approach. |
Requires general anesthesia. Risk of incisional complications (edema, infection, hernia). Recovery from anesthesia carries risk. |
| Standing Flank Laparotomy (Left) |
Avoids general anesthesia risk. Good for nephrosplenic entrapment. Can be diagnostic. Lower cost. |
Limited access to intestines. Cannot exteriorize bowel for resection. Small paralumbar fossa in horses vs cattle. |
| Right Ventral Paramedian |
Less prone to hernia than midline. Good healing. Alternative when midline compromised. |
Requires general anesthesia. More hemorrhage than midline. More technically demanding. |
| Lesion |
Presentation |
Surgical Treatment |
| Large Colon Displacement |
Moderate to severe pain. Tympanic ping on left flank (nephrosplenic). Gas-distended colon on ultrasound. |
Manual repositioning. Close nephrosplenic space if indicated. Assess viability. |
| Large Colon Volvulus |
Severe unrelenting pain. Rapid cardiovascular deterioration. Distended colon palpated rectally. |
Decompression via trocarization. Detorsion. Assess viability. Greater than 360 degree rotation often fatal. |
| Small Intestinal Strangulation |
Severe pain. Copious nasogastric reflux. Multiple distended SI loops on ultrasound. |
Identify and release strangulating lesion. Resection and anastomosis if bowel nonviable. |
| Enterolithiasis |
Recurrent mild colic. Mineral densities on radiographs. More common in certain geographic areas. |
Enterotomy of large colon. Remove enterolith(s). Diet modification postoperatively. |
Equine Surgery
Colic Surgery
Equine colic surgery is one of the most critical emergency procedures in equine medicine. The decision to perform surgery is based on clinical signs, response to medical management, and diagnostic findings. Early surgical intervention significantly improves survival rates, with current recovery rates around 73.5% for exploratory celiotomy.
Indications for Colic Surgery
- Uncontrollable pain despite analgesic therapy
- Progressive cardiovascular deterioration (increased heart rate, poor perfusion)
- Nasogastric reflux greater than 4 liters (suggests small intestinal obstruction)
- Rectal examination findings: distended small intestine, displaced colon, or mass
- Peritoneal fluid with increased protein, WBC count, or lactate
- Ultrasound evidence of small intestinal distension, thickened bowel wall, or free fluid
High-YieldHeart rate is the most important prognostic indicator in equine colic. Heart rate greater than 60 bpm with poor response to analgesia strongly suggests surgical colic.
Surgical Approaches for Equine Colic
MEMORY AID - Colic Surgery Decision: "TIME Matters" - Tachycardia (greater than 60), Intractable pain, Massive reflux (greater than 4L), and Evidence on ultrasound/rectal - all indicate surgery is needed.
Common Colic Lesions and Surgical Treatment
Postoperative Complications
Equine colic surgery carries significant risk of postoperative complications. The most critical period is the first 72 hours, when postoperative ileus, endotoxemia, and laminitis are most likely to develop.
- Postoperative ileus: Intestines fail to resume motility. Requires nasogastric decompression and prokinetics.
- Incisional complications: Edema (most common), infection, dehiscence, hernia formation.
- Adhesion formation: Can cause recurrent colic. More common with small intestinal surgery.
- Laminitis: Secondary to endotoxemia. Ice foot wraps and supportive care essential.
Equine Arthroscopy
Arthroscopy has revolutionized equine orthopedic surgery, allowing minimally invasive diagnosis and treatment of joint conditions. It is now considered the gold standard for equine joint surgery, offering superior visualization with reduced tissue trauma compared to arthrotomy.
Indications for Arthroscopy
- Osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) - removal of osteochondral fragments
- Chip fractures - fragment removal and joint debridement
- Septic arthritis - joint lavage and debridement
- Synovitis - synovial biopsy and treatment
- Meniscal and ligament injuries (stifle) - diagnosis and debridement
- Articular fracture repair - reduction and internal fixation assistance
MEMORY AID - OCD Location Memory: "FTS" = Femoropatellar joint (lateral trochlear ridge), Tarsocrural joint (distal intermediate ridge of tibia), and Stifle (lateral trochlear ridge). These are the three most common OCD locations in horses.
High-YieldArthroscopy is diagnostic AND therapeutic - it allows both visualization of joint pathology and treatment in the same procedure with minimal tissue trauma and faster recovery.
Upper Airway Surgery
Equine upper airway surgery addresses conditions that cause respiratory obstruction and exercise intolerance. Laryngeal hemiplegia (recurrent laryngeal neuropathy) is the most common condition requiring surgical intervention, affecting up to 8% of Thoroughbreds.
Laryngeal Hemiplegia (Roaring)
Laryngeal hemiplegia results from progressive neuropathy of the recurrent laryngeal nerve, causing atrophy of the cricoarytenoideus dorsalis muscle. This leads to inability to abduct the arytenoid cartilage during inspiration, resulting in airway obstruction and the characteristic "roaring" sound during exercise. The LEFT side is affected in greater than 95% of cases due to the longer course of the left recurrent laryngeal nerve.
MEMORY AID - Left Laryngeal Hemiplegia: "LEFT is LONGEST" - The left recurrent laryngeal nerve has a longer course (loops around the aorta), making it more susceptible to damage. Remember: Left = Long = Laryngeal hemiplegia.
Grading System (Endoscopic)
Surgical Treatment Options
High-YieldProsthetic laryngoplasty (tie-back) is the most widely used treatment for laryngeal hemiplegia. The most common complication is dysphagia (difficulty swallowing) in the immediate postoperative period.
| Joint |
Common Conditions |
Arthroscopic Approach |
| Fetlock (Metacarpophalangeal / Metatarsophalangeal) |
Chip fractures, OCD, palmar/plantar osteochondral fragments, synovitis |
Dorsal approach most common. Palmar/plantar approach for specific lesions. Horse in lateral or dorsal recumbency. |
| Carpus (Intercarpal, Radiocarpal) |
Chip fractures, carpal bone slab fractures, OCD, synovitis |
Multiple dorsal portals. Systematic evaluation of all carpal bones. Horse in lateral recumbency. |
| Tarsocrural (Hock) |
OCD (distal intermediate ridge of tibia most common site), synovitis |
Dorsomedial and dorsolateral approaches. Evaluate talus and distal tibia ridges. |
| Femoropatellar |
OCD (lateral trochlear ridge), subchondral cystic lesions, cartilage damage |
Lateral, medial, and cranial approaches. Horse in dorsal recumbency. |
| Femorotibial (Stifle) |
Meniscal tears, cruciate injuries, subchondral cystic lesions of medial femoral condyle |
Multiple portals required. Cranial and caudal pouches evaluated separately. Standing arthroscopy possible. |
| Grade |
Findings |
Clinical Significance |
| Grade I |
Full arytenoid abduction and synchronous movement bilaterally |
Normal - no treatment |
| Grade II |
Asynchronous movement but full abduction can be achieved |
Usually subclinical. Monitor. |
| Grade III |
Arytenoid movement present but cannot achieve full abduction |
May affect performance. Dynamic endoscopy recommended. |
| Grade IV |
Complete paralysis - no arytenoid movement |
Significant obstruction. Surgery indicated for athletes. |
Food Animal Surgery
Bovine Cesarean Section
Cesarean section in cattle is indicated when dystocia cannot be resolved by manipulation or fetotomy, and when the fetus and/or dam can be saved. The standing left paralumbar celiotomy is the most commonly used approach, as the rumen helps contain the intestines and prevents their prolapse through the incision.
Indications for Cesarean Section
- Fetal-maternal disproportion (oversized calf, small pelvis)
- Incomplete cervical dilation
- Uncorrectable uterine torsion
- Irreducible malpresentation
- Fetal monsters (schistosomus reflexus)
- Maternal pelvic fractures
- Prolonged dystocia with questionable fetal viability (live calf preferred)
MEMORY AID - C-Section Indications: "FIVE Ms" - Mismatch (fetal-maternal size), Malpresentation (uncorrectable), Monster (fetal abnormality), Maternal pelvis problem, and Missed dilation (cervix won't open).
Surgical Approaches
High-YieldThe LEFT paralumbar fossa approach is preferred because the RUMEN acts as a natural barrier to prevent intestinal prolapse through the surgical incision.
Surgical Technique Highlights
Anesthesia: Local anesthesia using inverted-L block or paravertebral block with 2% lidocaine (approximately 80-100 mL total). Epidural anesthesia may be added to reduce straining.
Incision: Vertical incision of 30-40 cm in the paralumbar fossa, starting ventral to the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae.
Muscle Layers: External abdominal oblique (incise), internal abdominal oblique (blunt dissection along fibers), transversus abdominis (blunt dissection), peritoneum (incise).
Uterine Handling: Locate uterus and exteriorize if possible. Grasp non-pregnant horn first to control fetal limbs. Make incision on greater curvature of uterus.
Calf Delivery: Extract calf by hind limbs (if anterior presentation, locate hind limbs in non-pregnant horn). Rupture umbilical cord by stretching, not cutting.
Closure: Uterus closed in two layers (inverting pattern). Do NOT remove placenta. Abdominal layers closed in 3 layers.
MEMORY AID - Flank Muscle Layers: "EIT-P" - External oblique (incise), Internal oblique (blunt), Transversus (blunt), Peritoneum (incise). Remember: "Every Intelligent Technician Preps!"
Postoperative Considerations
- Retained placenta is common and expected - do NOT manually remove
- Administer NSAIDs (flunixin meglumine) for analgesia and anti-inflammatory effect
- Systemic antibiotics (penicillin) for 3-5 days
- Monitor for metritis, peritonitis, and incisional complications
- Milk and meat withdrawal times must be observed if antibiotics administered
Left Displaced Abomasum (LDA) Surgery
Left displaced abomasum is one of the most common surgical conditions in dairy cattle, primarily affecting high-producing cows in the first month postpartum. The abomasum becomes distended with gas and migrates to an abnormal position between the rumen and left abdominal wall.
Pathophysiology
Risk factors include: decreased dry matter intake, high-concentrate/low-fiber diets, concurrent diseases (metritis, mastitis, ketosis, hypocalcemia), and the transition period when the rumen is smaller due to pregnancy and then expands postpartum. Decreased abomasal motility and increased gas production allow the abomasum to float dorsally on the left side.
High-YieldLDA is a "man-made disease" - associated with management practices including high-concentrate diets, inadequate fiber, and poor transition cow management. Prevention through proper nutrition is key.
Diagnosis
Simultaneous auscultation and percussion (SAP) of the left paralumbar fossa reveals a characteristic "ping" between the 9th-13th ribs. This must be differentiated from rumen ping, pneumoperitoneum, and physometra. Aspiration of fluid with pH less than 4.5 confirms abomasal origin.
MEMORY AID - LDA Ping Location: "Left 9-13" - The LDA ping is heard on the LEFT side between ribs 9-13. Right-sided pings may indicate RDA or abomasal volvulus (emergency!).
Surgical Correction Methods
High-YieldRight paralumbar omentopexy is the most commonly used technique in North America because it allows standing surgery with complete abdominal exploration while avoiding recumbency risks.
Dehorning and Disbudding
Dehorning and disbudding are common procedures performed to prevent injuries to animals and handlers. Understanding the difference between these procedures, appropriate methods by age, and pain management requirements is essential.
Terminology and Timing
MEMORY AID - Disbudding vs Dehorning: "8-Week Rule" - Before 8 weeks = Disbudding (horn buds not attached to skull). After 8 weeks = Dehorning (horn attached to skull, opens sinus).
Methods by Age
Pain Management (AVMA Recommendations)
Pain control is considered the standard of care for all disbudding and dehorning procedures. The AVMA recommends a multimodal approach including:
- Local anesthesia: Cornual nerve block (injection at temporal ridge between lateral canthus of eye and horn base)
- NSAIDs: Preoperative administration (meloxicam, flunixin) reduces inflammation and provides longer-lasting analgesia
- Sedation (if needed): Xylazine for fractious animals. Remember withdrawal times for food animals.
High-YieldThe AVMA recommends disbudding be performed at the earliest age practicable and that pain management (local anesthesia plus NSAIDs) be used for ALL disbudding and dehorning procedures.
MEMORY AID - Cornual Nerve Block Location: "Halfway Between" - Inject 2% lidocaine HALFWAY between the lateral canthus of the eye and the base of the horn, just below the temporal ridge (frontal crest).
| Procedure |
Description |
Indications |
| Prosthetic Laryngoplasty (Tie-Back) |
Most common treatment. Suture placed through cricoid and arytenoid cartilages to permanently abduct the arytenoid. Can be performed standing or under general anesthesia. |
Grade IV hemiplegia. Performance horses. |
| Ventriculocordectomy |
Removal of laryngeal ventricle and vocal cord to widen airway. Often combined with laryngoplasty. Can be performed via laryngotomy or transendoscopic laser. |
Combined with tie-back. May be performed alone in draft breeds. |
| Partial Arytenoidectomy |
Removal of paralyzed arytenoid cartilage. Performed via laryngotomy under general anesthesia. |
Failed tie-back. Arytenoid chondritis. |
| Nerve Muscle Pedicle Graft |
Re-innervation procedure using first cervical nerve branch grafted to cricoarytenoideus dorsalis muscle. Takes 6-12 months for effect. |
Young horses with Grade III. No prior tie-back surgery. |
| Approach |
Advantages |
Disadvantages |
| Standing Left Paralumbar (Most Common) |
Rumen contains intestines. Standing procedure. Minimal assistance needed. Good for live calves. |
Difficult if calf in right horn. Limited access to emphysematous fetuses. |
| Standing Left Oblique |
Easier uterine exteriorization. Larger incision possible. Less peritoneal contamination. |
Incision more cranioventral. May be harder to close. |
| Standing Right Paralumbar |
Better access when calf in right horn. |
Intestines may prolapse. Requires assistant to contain viscera. |
| Recumbent Ventral Midline |
Best for emphysematous fetuses. Good uterine exteriorization. Better contamination control. |
Requires recumbency (casting). Risk of regurgitation. More staff needed. |
| Ventrolateral (Recumbent) |
Good for weak or recumbent cows. Better control of emphysematous cases. |
Requires recumbency. Limited to specific situations. |
Ophthalmic Surgery Basics
Ophthalmic surgery encompasses procedures performed on the eye and surrounding structures. While many complex procedures require referral to veterinary ophthalmologists, general practitioners should be competent in emergency ocular procedures and common eyelid surgeries.
Key Ophthalmic Terminology
MEMORY AID - Entropion vs Ectropion: "ENtropion = IN" (eyelid rolls INward). "ECtropion = EC-scape" (eyelid rolls outward, away, escaping from the eye).
Enucleation
Enucleation is the surgical removal of the eye and is indicated when the eye is blind, painful, and/or unsalvageable. It is considered a "last resort" procedure but provides permanent pain relief and eliminates the source of ongoing pathology.
Indications
- Severe ocular trauma with irreparable damage
- End-stage glaucoma (blind, painful, buphthalmic eye)
- Intraocular neoplasia
- Uncontrolled severe uveitis
- Severe endophthalmitis/panophthalmitis
- Phthisis bulbi (shrunken, non-functional eye)
Surgical Approaches
High-YieldTranspalpebral enucleation is preferred for infected or neoplastic eyes because the eyelids remain closed throughout the procedure, minimizing contamination of the surgical field.
Entropion Repair
Entropion is one of the most common eyelid abnormalities, particularly in breeds with excessive facial skin folds (Shar Pei, Chow Chow, Bulldog). The inward-rolling eyelid causes constant corneal irritation, leading to pain, ulceration, and potential scarring or pigmentation.
Classification
- Primary/Developmental: Inherited conformational abnormality. Most common type.
- Spastic: Secondary to painful eye condition causing blepharospasm. May resolve with treatment of underlying cause.
- Cicatricial: Secondary to scarring from trauma or chronic inflammation.
Surgical Correction
MEMORY AID - Hotz-Celsus Rule: "Start Small, Add More" - It's better to under-correct entropion initially and perform a second surgery than to over-correct and create ectropion. Remove less tissue than you think you need.
High-YieldDogs with surgically corrected entropion should NOT be bred (inherited trait) and are disqualified from conformation showing. The success rate for entropion surgery is approximately 90-95%.
Third Eyelid Gland Prolapse (Cherry Eye)
Prolapse of the nictitating membrane gland ("cherry eye") is common in young dogs, particularly brachycephalic breeds. The gland produces approximately 30-50% of the tear film, making preservation essential to prevent keratoconjunctivitis sicca (KCS).
Treatment: Surgical replacement (pocket technique or anchoring technique) is preferred over excision. Gland excision increases the risk of KCS later in life.
High-YieldNEVER excise a prolapsed third eyelid gland - always replace it surgically. Excision leads to keratoconjunctivitis sicca (dry eye) in up to 50% of cases due to loss of tear production.
Small Animal Surgery
- OVH, castration, mass removal, and dental extractions are core entry-level competencies
- GI surgery requires understanding of intestinal viability assessment (4 Cs: Color, Contractility, Circulation, Consistency)
- Gastropexy prevents GDV recurrence - should be performed concurrently with GDV correction
Equine Surgery
- Ventral midline celiotomy is the standard approach for colic surgery
- Heart rate greater than 60 bpm with uncontrollable pain indicates surgical colic
- Arthroscopy is diagnostic AND therapeutic - gold standard for joint surgery
- Prosthetic laryngoplasty (tie-back) is the standard treatment for Grade IV laryngeal hemiplegia
Food Animal Surgery
- Left paralumbar celiotomy is the standard approach for bovine cesarean section
- Right paralumbar omentopexy is preferred for LDA correction (allows exploration + standing procedure)
- Disbudding (less than 8 weeks) is preferred over dehorning - less invasive, faster recovery
- Pain management (local block + NSAIDs) is standard of care for all disbudding/dehorning procedures
Ophthalmic Surgery
- Enucleation is removal of globe + nictitans + glands + lid margins - performed for painful blind eyes
- Transpalpebral enucleation preferred for infected/neoplastic eyes (minimizes contamination)
- Entropion = eyelid rolls IN; Ectropion = eyelid rolls OUT
- Hotz-Celsus procedure is standard entropion repair - always under-correct initially
- Never excise a prolapsed third eyelid gland (cherry eye) - always replace surgically
| Technique |
Description |
Advantages/Disadvantages |
| Right Paralumbar Omentopexy (Hannover Technique) |
Standing surgery via right flank. Abomasum deflated and repositioned. Omentum sutured to right flank musculature to prevent recurrence. |
Advantages: Standing procedure, allows full abdominal exploration. Disadvantages: Cannot visualize displaced abomasum directly. |
| Left Paralumbar Abomasopexy (Utrecht Method) |
Standing surgery via left flank. Direct visualization of displaced abomasum. Sutures placed in abomasum and passed to right paramedian for pexy. |
Advantages: Direct visualization. Disadvantages: Two incision sites (flank and ventral), more time consuming. |
| Right Paramedian Abomasopexy |
Recumbent surgery. Cow cast or sedated in dorsal recumbency. Abomasum directly sutured to body wall. |
Advantages: Direct pexy to abomasum. Disadvantages: Requires recumbency, risk with bloat and regurgitation. |
| Roll and Toggle (Percutaneous) |
Cow cast and rolled to dorsal recumbency. Toggle pin placed percutaneously into abomasum and fixed to ventral body wall. |
Advantages: Minimally invasive, quick, inexpensive. Disadvantages: Blind technique, higher recurrence rate. |
| Laparoscopic Abomasopexy (One or Two-Step) |
Minimally invasive. Visualization via laparoscope. Suture placed in abomasum laparoscopically. |
Advantages: Minimal tissue trauma, faster recovery. Disadvantages: Requires specialized equipment. |
| Procedure |
Definition |
Optimal Age |
| Disbudding |
Destruction of horn-producing cells (corium) BEFORE horn attaches to skull. Horn bud removed without opening frontal sinus. |
Less than 8 weeks. Ideally less than 2-3 weeks. |
| Dehorning |
Removal of horn AFTER attachment to skull. Opens frontal sinus. More invasive with greater pain and bleeding. |
Greater than 8 weeks to adult. |
| Horn Tipping |
Removal of pointed tip of horn only. Does not open sinus or remove horn base. Reduces puncture injury risk. |
Adult cattle with intact horns. |
| Method |
Technique |
Age/Indications |
| Caustic Paste |
Chemical destruction of horn bud. Applied to small area over bud. Causes local necrosis. |
Less than 1 week old. Keep dry. Avoid contact with dam's udder and calf's eyes. |
| Hot Iron (Electric/Gas) |
Thermal destruction of corium. Apply until copper-colored ring visible around base. Complete destruction of horn-producing cells. |
Up to 8 weeks. Most common disbudding method. Ensure complete ring achieved. |
| Tube/Spoon Dehorner |
Physical excision of horn bud with sharp instrument that scoops out corium. |
2-8 weeks. Some bleeding expected. Cauterize or apply hemostatic agent. |
| Barnes Dehorners (Gouges) |
Cutting/crushing instrument for larger horns. Removes horn with portion of skull if needed. |
Greater than 8 weeks. More bleeding. Do NOT use on goats (thinner skull). |
| Surgical (Gigli Wire/Saw) |
Complete horn removal with fusiform skin incision. Opens frontal sinus. Requires wound management. |
Adults with large horns. Most invasive. Consider cosmetic closure vs. bandaging. |
| Term |
Definition |
| Enucleation |
Removal of the globe, nictitating membrane, orbital glands, and eyelid margins. Most complete eye removal. |
| Exenteration |
Removal of globe plus ALL orbital contents and eyelid margins. Used for orbital neoplasia. |
| Evisceration |
Removal of intraocular contents while preserving the scleral shell. Used for intrascleral prosthesis placement. |
| Entropion |
Inward rolling of the eyelid margin, causing hair/lashes to contact the cornea. Causes pain and corneal damage. |
| Ectropion |
Outward rolling/eversion of the eyelid margin. Causes exposure keratitis and conjunctival irritation. |
| Proptosis |
Forward displacement of the globe from the orbit. Traumatic emergency in dogs, especially brachycephalic breeds. |
| Approach |
Technique |
Indications |
| Transpalpebral (Lateral) |
Eyelids sutured closed. Elliptical skin incision around closed eyelids. Dissection through orbicularis oculi muscle to periorbita. Blunt dissection around globe to optic nerve, which is transected. |
Most common. Septic or neoplastic eyes. Minimizes contamination. |
| Transconjunctival (Subconjunctival) |
Conjunctival incision at limbus. Dissection between sclera and Tenon's capsule. Extraocular muscles transected. Better visualization of optic nerve. |
Non-infected, non-neoplastic eyes. Trauma cases. Better cosmesis potential. |
| Procedure |
Technique |
When to Use |
| Temporary Eyelid Tacking |
Temporary sutures (vertical mattress) placed to evert eyelid. Allows puppies to grow into facial conformation. |
Puppies less than 6 months. May need to repeat. Definitive surgery once mature. |
| Hotz-Celsus (Blepharoplasty) |
Elliptical section of skin removed parallel to and below eyelid margin. Suture closure everts the lid. |
Standard procedure for lateral/central entropion. Amount removed based on severity. |
| Medial Canthoplasty |
Narrowing of eyelid opening by partial closure at medial canthus. Reduces medial entropion. |
Medial entropion (common in Pugs). Caruncular entropion. |
| Hyaluronic Acid Injection |
Subdermal injection of filler to evert eyelid. Temporary solution (months). |
High anesthetic risk patients. Geriatric involutional entropion. |